Yes the monitor can be attached. It can be either ECG (electrical) or a finger pulse monitor. Both work fine.

ECG monitors do have problems with MRI, because the scanner generates an absolute ton of electrical interference which messes up the waveforms.

The waveform is also distorted because when you move something which conducts electricity (like a wire, but also blood or heart tissue) in the presence of a magnetic field, that movement generates electricity. The electricity generated by the moving blood and heart muscle can mess up the trace - it's still good enough for timing and syncing up the scan - but it doesn't look like the trace you get in textbooks.

Heart monitors are absolutely a hazard if used with MRI incorrectly. Obviously, you wouldn't use one with any magnetic parts. However, because of the enormous electromagnetic fields generated by the MRI scanner, there can be all sorts of weird effects with wires and metals. So, it's very important that the correct monitor and sticky electrodes be used. Electrodes with too much metal in them can get hot and burn the skin. Wires which are too long can pick up interference from the scanner, concentrate it and direct it into electrodes, also burning the skin. There are special monitors and electrodes designed specifically to withstand these effects and absorb the energy safely so as not to burn the skin. These monitors also contain special electronic filters to try to filter out most of the interference produced by the scanner so that the waveform isn't completely swamped by just static and interference.

That is what is done for radiotherapy. Modern techniques such as conformal radiotherapy do exactly that, re-shaping and re-directing the beam to avoid sensitive off-target areas and maximise dose to the target where all the beams collide. In practice, there is still cobsiderable off-target exposure.

For very high precision there are variants such as stereotactic radiosurgery, where up to 200 separate beams target a small area allow extremely high dose at the target with less off target dose. However, stereotactic techniques are limited in target size, and high grade gliomas are usually too large to be practically treated this way.

he other problem with gliomas is that they infiltrate, sending out microscopic "tendrils' into the adjacent brain tissue which can be much larger than the visible tumour. This is a major provlem for treatment as the tumor can recur elsewhere in the brain.

When a solid dissolves in a liquid, it basically becomes liquid. This is kind of like melting - the solid becomes a liquid. For this to happen, the chemical bonds holding the solid together have to break. Breaking the bonds takes energy - this can come from heat, so when a substance melts it cools the area around it. The same happens when a solid dissolves - it cools the liquid around it.

However, there is a big difference between melting and dissolving. When a solid dissolves in a liquid, it becomes part of the liquid by bonding with the liquid molecules. This creates new bonds and making these new bonds releases energy as heat. This refunds some of the heat used to break up the solid in the first place.

For most solids, the heat refund is less than was paid to break the solid up. This means that dissolving costs energy and eventually you reach a balance where no more will dissolve. If you add more heat, there is more energy available and the balance points moves so that more ends up dissolved.

For some solids, the refund is actually more than was paid. In this case, adding heat reduces solubility bexause the energy balance point moves the opposite way.

The same thing happens with gases. They have super weak bonds when gases, and the bonds when dissolved are stronger, so you get an energy refund when they dissolve. Putting more energy in moves the balance point to reduce solubility.

Electricity flows in a loop - a complete circuit back to the power source. With a battery, yiu have to have a wire going to both ends of the battery to complete the loop.

Water conducts electricity, so it acts a bit like a wire. Electricity will always take every possible path to complete its loop. Electrical wires are designed with insulating covers (plastic) over the surface of the metal specifically to keep the electricity only in the wires. But in water the electricity can spread out.

Now imagine that if you put a bare metal wire in water. The electricity will try to flow through the water on all directions to find the loop that completes the circuit.

Often the loop is quite vague - especially in mains power. The power plant produces power, and normally the loop is two separate wires on your electrical cables. However, there are other loops possible - the electricity can go through a pipe into the ground, the through the ground back to the power plant and the back into the generator through a ground wire.

So if you drop a hair dryer on the bath, bare wires inside the hair dryer get exposed to water. The water spreads out through the water looking for a loop. It finds the drain pipe which goes into the ground and that gives it a path back to the power plant.

Now you reach in to the bath to pick up the hair dryer. You have one hand on the metal bath tap and yih reach in with the other. Your body conducts electricity and when you reach in, the electricity finds a new loop from the water-through your arm, then body, then down into the tap, then into the water pipes. So, some of the electricity flows through you and that is why you get shocked.

Running a journal is expensive. There are production staff, editorial staff, IT demands (organisation and publishing software), and other office costs. There are also reviewing costs - while the main subject matter is often done by volunteer reviewers, ceraint parts of the review may require paid specialists (eg. A medical journal may need to hire a mathematician to check the statistical analysis).

Traditionally, the way journals were funded was by selling subscriptions to individual scientists or universities and libraries. This is still the case, but there are now so many journals that it is inpossible, even for top universities to keep up. I teach at a med school and while some of the most famous med journals are subscribed to and the library has a login, minor or specialist journals often are not available, and while the library can get a copy it usually costs $20-30 for the request to be sent out to a partner library who does have a subscription and get the article back.

Increasingly, many journals now offer an option where the authors pay to have their article published. So, if yoi write a scientific article, send it to a journal and their reviewers and editor accept it, then you can pay the cost of publication (usually around $1000) and the publisher will make the article "open access (free to anyone).

As $1000 is very cheap compared to a new scientific experiment or study, this is easily affordable by anyone who had the money to do the study. Indeed, many charities and governments which give out money for scientific work, now specifically include a publication fee in the donation, and make it a requirement that any articles published come out "open access".

JPEG was developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group and the CCITT, with the intention of being a free and open standard. Where they did use patented technology, they specifically negotiated with the patent holders to get free use rights.

Lossless JPEG, in particular, used a ton of patented technology, whereas lossy JPEG was pretty much patent-free. Some lawyers were concerned that the agreements may be CCITT/JPEG might not cover all patents, so lossless JPEG was immediately hamstrung by legal concerns, plus the fact that for most purposes, lossy JPEG was plenty good enough and gave much better compression.

There was a bit of a controversy, because in 2002, a company with a patent on the DCT technology behind lossy JPEG, suddenly started instructing lawyers to sue any company using JPEG files or using software which could handle JPEG files. This patent wasn't listed in the legal documents produced by JPEG/CCITT, so they didn't have a legal agreement in place. In the end, the company decided to drop the claims, because the patent wasn't actually valid.

GIF has also been problematic from a patent and legal perspective, although PNG has been designed from the ground up to be open and avoid patented technologies completely.

It's an excellent format in many ways, but had a number of problems.

The technology it used (wavelet transform) was new and dozens of new start up companies were out there patenting everything wavelet related they could think of. Lawyers were concerned that JPEG-2000 was potentially impacted by a ton of patents. As a result, very little software supported it, and that which did was typically highly priced professional software, with JPEG-2000 support as an additional expensive option.

The wavelet transform is substantially more complex than the discrete cosine transform used in JPEG 1. Saving and opening files can be dramatically slower. High resolution files which would take 1 second to display in JPEG 1, could take minutes with JPEG 2000 on a similar year 2000 CPU.

The new features JPEG2000 offered (lossless compression, less visible lossy compression artefacts, HDR, imaging tiling, hyperspectral imaging and 3D) were of limited interest to most users at the time and did not outweigh the cost and CPU requirements, and even today, many of the features are still niche.

Some industries did use JPEG2000, mainly the medical and scientific (e.g. satellite imaging) communities, because of it's advantages and the fact that the had a clear need for the features, could mitigate the disadvantages and were prepared to pay. For example, in medical imaging JPEG2000 was typically used for transfer of images on CD/DVD or over a slow WAN network connection. If it took 10 minutes to compress the images before burning to a CD, and it allowed only 1 disc to be burned instead of 2, that was a big advantage.

The patent issue has been a recurring problem. For example JPEG 1 is generally thought of as being always lossy. There is, in fact, a lossless mode - but at the time JPEG 1 launched, the technology it used (arithmetic coding) was heavily patented, and most companies developing JPEG software stayed far away from the lossless mode. Lossless JPEG 1 is a very niche file format - mainly only used for medical image transfer - with almost no software able to open it.

X-ray images are shadows of the tissue. Bones are really opaque so show up really clearly. Soft tissues, including cartilage, muscles, ligaments, fat and skin are almost totally transparent, so only show up super faintly.

The actual ligament itself only shows up the same as muscle - so when the two are next to each other, they just blur into each other because you can't see an edge where there is a difference.

However, you can sometimes see hints of a sprain. There may be swelling of the tissue around the ligament. While you might not be able to see any detail, you could see that things are swollen under the skin. Sometimes a sprain also damages the bone by pulling a small flake of bone off where the ligament attaches to the bone. The bone flake can be easily seen in many cases. The bones of the joint might have moved out of position of the ligaments holding them together have been damaged.

The heart will automatically try and start, provided that it has oxygen, energy, correct pH and the correct electrolytes.

In surgery, the heart has its blood supply replaced with ice cold potassium chloride solution. The potassium is completely the wrong electrolyte, and the temperature is low, so the heart stops.

To restart it, the blood supply is reconnected and once warm, fresh blood with oxygen and the correct electrolytes reaches the heart it will restart. It may restart erratically on ventricular fibrillation, so it may need a shock to get back into normal rhythm.

The reason during resuscitation you can't usually restart a stopped heart is because you have to reverse the cause of the heart stopping first. Often it is severe illness, with major biochemical abnormalities or multiple organ failure, which can't easily be reversed.

MRI scanners using liquid helium (most in use today) are not sealed. As a result, some helium can escape. Heat leaks into the scanner and warms the helium which boils.

Some effort is made to reduce the boil off, typically a "cold finger" (more properly called a Gifford-McMahon cryocooler) is fitted at the top of the scanner. This is basically was a metal finger poking into the space above the liquid level, cooled to -271 C. The helium vapour condenses on the finger and drips back down into the liquid.

Early versions, especially in places like the US, where helium was plentiful and dirt cheap, had relatively weak coolers, so helium would gradually boil off, and periodic top ups would be needed. However, for about 20 years now, most MRI scanners have been zero boil-off because of upgraded coolers - so once started, shouldn't require topping up until obsolete. Older scanners may not have had facilities for recovery of the helium when obsolete - although newer ones are designed with recycling in mind, so that the magnet can go back to the factory still filled with helium, and the helium can then be recovered and reused.

However, helium can still be lost due to malfunction or maintenance. If the cooler stops for any reason, then the boiling helium won't condense and will leak out. Leave a faulty cooler long enough (a few weeks) and a top-up may be required to replace the lost helium. Some maintenance operations (such as controlled stop or start of the magnet) will also cause helium to escape enough to require a top up.

The most dramatic loss is due to a malfunction called "quench" when the magnet suddenly loses it's magnetism. A quench will typically result in the sudden eruption of all the helium from the machine - see https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0O_FneLbPHo for an example. Quench is a rare malfunction but does happen from time to time. Quench can also be triggered manually - usually in an emergency if someone gets pinned to the scanner by a wheelchair or something. (In this case, it appears to be a manual quench triggered as part of decommissioning of an obsolete machine, where recycling of the helium wasn't practical).

The latest machines which are now available to buy, work differently - they work more like a refrigerator. Instead of submerging the magnet internals inside a vat of liquid helium, the cooling plate of a special refrigerator is attached directly to the magnet internals. The refrigerator circuit is sealed, just like in a regular domestic fridge. No liquid helium is needed - just a few grams of helium gas inside the refrigerator circuit. There should be no loss of helium at any point in the scanner's life time.

No one is using hydrogen. Nitrogen is old and obsolete.

The current technology is "zero-cryogen" superconducting magnets. These use conventional niobium-titanium LTS magnets which are cooled by direct conduction to a heat exchanger in which is circulated a few grams of cold helium. This is a big change from the older generation of MRI technology which immersed the magnets in up to 150 kg of liquid helium, and used a "cold-head" to recondense helium which boiled off.

Zero cryogen magnets have several advantages, not just the fact that they don't need 100 kg+ of helium. The coolant circuit is sealed, so there is no leakage or boiloff. Similarly, there is no loss of coolant in the event of quench or emergency ramp down. A quench on an immersed magnet is a big problem, and recovery can take days. You can often recover a quench on a zero-cryogen magnet with a power cycle, which will initiate an automatic cool-down and ramp.